SQL Alternative to Excel Lookup

Context

Spreadsheet users often rely on INDEX-MATCH and VLOOKUP to pull values from reference tables. In SQL interviews, this usually maps to understanding how lookup logic translates into table design and query patterns.

Core question

Explain how INDEX-MATCH works in spreadsheets, why many analysts prefer it over VLOOKUP, and how the same problem is typically solved in SQL. Your answer should cover:

1. What INDEX and MATCH each do
2. Why INDEX-MATCH is more flexible than VLOOKUP
3. What limitations VLOOKUP has
4. How SQL replaces spreadsheet lookups using keys and joins

Scope guidance

The interviewer is looking for a practical conceptual explanation, not spreadsheet syntax memorization. Focus on lookup direction, column-position dependence, maintainability, and how SQL joins are the database equivalent of robust lookup logic.